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Academic authorship of journal articlesbooks, and other original works is a means by which academics communicate the results of their scholarly workestablish priority for their discoveries, and build their reputation among their peers. Authorship is a primary basis that employers use to evaluate academic personnel for employment, promotion, and tenure. In academic publishingauthorship of a work is claimed by those making intellectual contributions to the completion of the research described in the work.
In simple cases, a solitary scholar carries out a research project and writes the subsequent article or book. In many disciplineshowever, collaboration is the norm and issues of authorship can be controversial.
In these contexts, authorship can encompass activities other than writing the article; a researcher who comes up with an experimental design and analyzes the data ghost writer for students academic paper be considered an author, even if she or he had little role in composing the text describing the results.
According to some standards, even writing the entire article would not constitute authorship unless the writer was also involved in at least one other phase of the project. Guidelines for assigning authorship vary between institutions and disciplines. They may be formally defined or simply cultural custom. Incorrect application of authorship rules occasionally leads to charges of academic misconduct and sanctions for the violator.
A survey of a large sample of researchers who had received funding from the U. In other fields only limited or no empirical data is available. The natural sciences have no universal standard for authorship, but some major multi-disciplinary journals and institutions have established guidelines for work that they publish. The journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America PNAS has an editorial policy that specifies "authorship should be limited to those who have contributed substantially to the work" and furthermore, "authors are strongly encouraged to indicate their specific contributions" as a footnote.
The American Chemical Society further specifies that authors are those who also "share responsibility and accountability for the results" [3] and the U. National Academies specify "an author who is willing to take credit for a paper must also bear responsibility for its contents.
Thus, unless a footnote or the text of the paper explicitly assigns responsibility for different parts of the paper to different authors, the authors whose names appear on a paper must share responsibility for all of it. In mathematics, the authors are usually listed in alphabetical order this is the so-called Hardy-Littlewood Rule.
This usage is described in the "Information Statements on the Culture of Research and Scholarship in Mathematics" section of the American Mathematical Society website, [5] specifically the statement: Joint Research and Its Publication. In other branches of knowledge such as economics, business, finance or particle physicsit is also usual to sort the authors alphabetically.
The medical field defines authorship very narrowly. According to the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journalsdesignation as an author must satisfy four conditions.
The author must have:. Acquisition of funding, or general supervision of the research group alone does not constitute authorship. Many authors - especially those in the middle of the byline - do not fulfill these authorship criteria.
Between about the average number of authors in medical papers increased, and perhaps tripled. The American Psychological Association APA has similar guidelines as medicine for authorship. The APA acknowledge that authorship is not limited to the writing of manuscripts, but must include those who have made substantial contributions to a study such as "formulating the problem or hypothesis, structuring the experimental design, organizing and conducting the statistical analysis, interpreting the results, ghost writer for students academic paper, or writing a major portion of the paper".
Like medicine, the APA considers institutional position, such as Department Chair, ghost writer for students academic paper, insufficient for attributing authorship. Neither the Modern Languages Association [11] nor the Chicago Manual of Style [12] define requirements for authorship because usually humanities works are single-authored and the author is responsible for the entire work.
From the late 17th century to the s, sole authorship was the norm, and the one-paper-one-author model worked well for distributing credit. In particular types of research, including particle physics, genome sequencing and clinical trials, ghost writer for students academic paper, a paper's author list can run into the hundreds. Inthe Collider Detector at Fermilab CDF adopted a at that time highly unorthodox policy for assigning authorship, ghost writer for students academic paper.
CDF maintains a standard author list. All scientists and engineers working at CDF are added to the standard author list after one year of full-time work; names stay on the list until one year after the worker leaves CDF.
Every publication coming out of CDF uses the entire standard author list, in alphabetical order. Other big collaborations, including most particle physics experiments, followed this model.
A paper published in the New England Journal of Medicine in reported on a clinical trial conducted in 1, hospitals in 15 different countries, involving a total of 41, patients. There were authors listed in an appendix and authorship was assigned to a group. Large authors lists have attracted some criticism. They strain guidelines that insist that each author's role be described and that each author is responsible for the validity of the whole work.
Such a system treats authorship more as credit for scientific service at the facility in general rather that as an identification ghost writer for students academic paper specific contributions. I have not been aware of any valid argument for more ghost writer for students academic paper three authors per paper, although I recognize that this may not be true for every field.
Alternatively, the increase in multi-authorship is according to a game-theoretic analysis a consequence of the way scientists are evaluated. Since it is common and rational to cite own papers more than others, a high number of coauthors increases not only the number of own papers, but also their impact. This problem is openly acknowledged, and it could easily be "corrected" by dividing ghost writer for students academic paper paper and its citations by the number of authors, [27] [28] though this practice has not been widely adopted.
Finally, the rise in shared authorship may also reflect increased acknowledgment of the contributions of lower level workers, including graduate students and technicians, as well as honorary authorship, ghost writer for students academic paper, while allowing for such collaborations to make an independent statement about the quality and integrity of a scientific work.
Honorary authorship is sometimes granted to those who played no significant role in the work, for a variety of reasons. Until recently, it was standard to list the head of a German department or institution as an author on a paper regardless of input. However, it is plausible to expect that it is still widespread, ghost writer for students academic paper, because senior scientists leading large research groups can receive much of their reputation from a long publication list and thus have little motivation to give up honorary authorships.
A possible measure against honorary authorships has been implemented by some scientific journals, in particular by the Nature journals. They demand [30] that each new manuscript must include a statement of responsibility that specifies the contribution of every author.
The level of detail varies between the disciplines. Senior persons may still make some vague claim to have "supervised the project", for example, even if they were only in the formal position of a supervisor without having delivered concrete contributions.
The truth content of such statements is usually not checked by independent persons. However, the need to describe contributions can at least be expected to somewhat reduce honorary authorships.
In addition, it may help to identify the perpetrator in a case of scientific fraud. More specific types of honorary authorship are gift, guest and rolling authorship. Gift authorship consist on authorship obtained by the offer of another author honorary or not with objectives that are beyond the research article itself or are ulterior, as promotion or favor.
A rolling authorship is a special case of gift authorship in which the honor is granted on the basis of previous research papers published or not and collaborations within the same research group. For instance, a post-doc researcher ghost writer for students academic paper the same research group where his PhD was awarded, may be willing ghost writer for students academic paper roll his authorship into any subsequent paper from other researchers in that same group, overseeing the criteria for authorship.
Perse, this would not cause authorship issues unless the collaboration was imposed by a third party, like e. supervisor or department's managers, in which case it is called a coercive authorship. This kind of practices may hinder free-thinking and professional independence, and thus should be tackled by research managers, clear research guidelines and authors agreements.
Ghost authorship occurs when an individual makes a substantial contribution to the research or the writing of the report, but is not listed as an author. medical writers or technical ghost writer for students academic paper become ghost authors when they meet authorship criteria but are not named as an author.
Writers who work in this capacity are called ghostwriters. Ghost authorship has been linked to partnerships between industry and higher education. Two-thirds of industry-initiated randomized trials may have evidence of ghost authorship. Litigation against the pharmaceutical company, Merck over health concerns related to use of their drug, Rofecoxib brand name Vioxxrevealed examples of ghost authorship. Authors are sometimes included in a list without their permission.
Rules for the order of multiple authors in a list have historically varied significantly between fields of research, ghost writer for students academic paper. In computer science in general the principal contributor is the first in the author list. However, the practice of putting the principal investigator last in the author list has increasingly become an accepted standard across most areas in science and engineering.
Although listing authors in order of the involvement in the project seems straightforward, it often leads to conflict. A study in the Canadian Medical Association Journal found that more than two-thirds of corresponding authors disagreed with their coauthors regarding contributions of each author. Authors' reputations can be damaged if their names appear on a paper that they do not completely understand or with which they were not intimately involved.
In a notable case, American stem-cell researcher Gerald Schatten had his name listed on a paper co-authored with Hwang Woo-suk. The paper was later exposed as fraudulent and, though Schatten was not accused of participating in the fraud, a panel at his university found that "his failure to more closely oversee research with his name on it does make him guilty of 'research misbehavior. All authors, including co-authors, are usually expected to have made reasonable attempts to check findings submitted for publication.
In some cases, co-authors of faked research have been accused of inappropriate behavior or research misconduct for failing to verify reports authored by others or by a commercial sponsor.
Examples include the case of Professor Geoffrey Chamberlain named as guest author of papers fabricated by Malcolm Pearce, [44] Chamberlain was exonerated from collusion in Pearce's deception [45] and the co-authors of Jan Hendrik Schön at Bell Laboratories.
More recent cases include Charles Nemeroff[46] former editor-in-chief of Neuropsychopharmacologyand the so-called Sheffield Actonel affair. Additionally, authors are expected to keep all study data ghost writer for students academic paper later examination even after publication.
Both scientific and academic censure can result from a failure to keep primary data; the case of Ranjit Chandra of Memorial University of Newfoundland provides an example of this, ghost writer for students academic paper. Outlined in the author disclosure statement for the American Journal of Human Biology[49] this is a policy more common in scientific fields where funding often comes from corporate sources.
Authors are also commonly required to provide information about ethical aspects of research, particularly where research involves human or animal participants or use of biological material.
Provision of incorrect information to journals may be regarded as misconduct. Financial pressures on universities have encouraged this type of misconduct.
The majority of recent cases of alleged misconduct involving undisclosed conflicts of interest or failure of the authors to have seen scientific data involve collaborative research between scientists and biotechnology companies. Authors occasionally forgo claiming authorship, for a number of reasons. Historically some authors have published anonymously to shield themselves when presenting controversial claims.
A key example is Robert Chambers ' anonymous publication of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creationa speculative, pre-Darwinian work on the origins of life and the cosmos. The book argued for an evolutionary view of life in the same spirit as the late Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lamarck.
Lamarck had long been discredited among intellectuals by this time and evolutionary or development theories were exceedingly unpopular, except among the political radicals, materialists, and atheists - Chambers hoped to avoid Lamarck's fate. In the 18th century, Émilie du Châtelet began her career as a scientific author by submitting a paper in an annual competition held by the French Academy of Sciences ; papers in this competition were submitted anonymously.
Initially presenting her work without claiming authorship allowed her to have her work judged by established scientists while avoiding the bias against women in the sciences.
She did not win the competition, but eventually her paper was published alongside the winning submissions, under her real name. Scientists and engineers working in corporate and military organizations are often restricted from publishing and claiming authorship of their work because their results are considered secret property of the organization that employs them.
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We realize that students are only beginning their journey into the world of money-making and usually are looking for a high-quality but cheap essay writing service. For this reason, we set only affordable prices for our papers. The final cost of your paper depends on the deadline, academic level, page count, and optional extras Academic authorship of journal articles, books, and other original works is a means by which academics communicate the results of their scholarly work, establish priority for their discoveries, and build their reputation among their peers.. Authorship is a primary basis that employers use to evaluate academic personnel for employment, promotion, and tenure Ghostwriting is considered to be academic dishonesty and can lead to repercussions if detected by universities, although it is not illegal in the United States, United Kingdom and Germany. There are ghostwriting companies and freelancers that sell entrance essays, term papers, theses and dissertations to students. Such services are commonly known as "essay mills"
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